China s Economic Growth Essay - 1144 Words

Beginning in 1980 when China entered the global market, it experienced remarkable growth in terms of GDP and net output. Much of its growth is attributed to its large amount of exports, particularly within the manufacturing industry. As a result, its GDP per capita increased significantly and the country as a whole became considerably wealthier. More recently, however, demographic changes and increased wealth inequality are hindering its growth. Between 2008 and 2015, the World Bank estimates GDP growth decreased from 9.623% to 6.9%. While its growth remains quite strong in comparison to other developing economies within its echelon (BRIC countries), its increasingly stagnant growth evokes concern for the future of its economy and prospects. Much of China’s economic disparities lie in the overall gentrification of the country. Much of China is rapidly transforming into more advanced, urbanized cities, while the majority of wealth is held in affluent metropolises such as Guangzhou, Beijing, and Shanghai. A study by Peking University found the poorest quarter accounted for less than two percent of total wealth in China. The same study also found that the wealthiest percent of China owned nearly two-thirds of all wealth. Inequality to this degree not only presents an ethical dilemma regarding the advancement of a select few, while the majority of china remains in a far more regressed state, but also reduces the resilience of the population to shifting economic trends. WhileShow MoreRelatedChina s Economic Growth1321 Words   |  6 PagesFor many years China has been the leading economic power in the world, even surpassing the United States. Recently, the country has been hanging onto that title despite its weakening economy. China’s economic growth has been declining due to job losses and lack of manufacturing. However, there have been numerous attempts to fix this problem. According to an article in the New York Times, China has created a new world bank — despite skepticism about that idea by other nations including the UnitedRead MoreChina s Economic Growth3241 Words   |  13 Pagesrecent rapid economic growth has astounded countries around the world, including the U.S. Domestic policies that improved incentives for economic competitiveness were one of the main reasons that China was so successful in increasing its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). â€Å"The combination of Chinese land and labor with the capital and expertise of Taiwan and Hong Kong industrialists provided a particularly important boost to exports and employment during the first decade of reform.† China attracted investmentsRead MoreChina s Economic Growth Mechanism1768 Words   |  8 PagesThe article of Yasheng Huangï ¼Å'named how did China take offï ¼Å'discussing on economic growth mechanism, mainly come to China’s economic reform had the process of financial liberalization. Furthermore, he pointed out that political reform, financial liberalization and the development of township enterprises are the key focus on China’s development. Huang argues that the results of China s economic development are mainly due to internal reforms which are the reforms of China’s rural industry. On the contraryRead MoreChina s Economic Growth And Development Essay990 Words   |  4 Pagesimmersed themselves in the discourse of China’s rapid economic growth and development. For a socialist regime, the emergence on China’s remarkable economic achievement has been one of the world’s most unprecedented success stories. Sai-leung Ng (2000) emphasized on China’s success, describing China as the country with the most rapid economic growth of the time. Paul Collier (2007) noted that individuals in the west were starting to get worried that China was converging to quickly with the western economyRead MoreIndia And China s Economic Growth1085 Words   |  5 PagesAbstract India and China, two populous countries (nearly one-third of the world’s population) in the world, have innumerable similarities in many aspects. Both of them sit on the Asian continent and achieve rapid economic growth in the past three decades. As current success stories of globalization, this rapid growth also influences the economic structure of the world which leads more concentration on the analysis of these two countries. Two Not Similar economies Different economies may have commonRead MoreChina s Economic Growth With Capacity And Influence941 Words   |  4 PagesSince the 1980 s China is a develop country that never stop until now, and will rise to dominate the world in the Twenty First Century. China has a big potential geographic realm, population and natural resource which not else has in the world. Based in China s economic miracle from oriented economy to open market it is presented a transitions economy with more orderly, established, and accommodating that could have been imagined for all of us. It started from zero economy level and will grow mayRead MoreChina s Sudden Growth And Rise Of A Economic Superpower1290 Words   |  6 PagesChina’s sudden growth and rise to an economic superpower has affected the worldwide economy, the worldwide environment, and its own private industry in ways that may have longstanding effects for the future. Prior to the nineteenth century China had the world’s largest and most advanced economy, but missed its industrial and cultural revolution and began to decay (Cao, 2003). China began its rise to a new economic superpower in 1948, in the wake of World War II. It had just emerged as its own independentRead MoreChina s Economic Growth Is Unstable, Unbalanced, Uncoordinated, And Unsustainable761 Words   |  4 PagesPremier Wen Jiabao argues the biggest problem with China’s economy is that its economic growth is unstable, unbalanced, uncoordinated, and unsustainable. Since export and investment play unsustainable roles in increasing China’s real GDP, this study tries to testify how consumption enhances the sustainability of China’s real GDP in the short run over a long period of time. As Krugman (1994) suggests, increase in the economic growth rate in the steady state can only be attained by the technological progressRead MoreVietnam Air Pollution And China s Economic Development And Growth2618 Words   |  11 Pages Chinese Air Pollution History of Air Pollution in China During the 1980s, China underwent a series of industrial changes leading to severe air pollution (Chen, Ebenstein, Greenstone, Li, 2013; Chen, Kan, Chen, Jiang, Hong, 2011; Kan, London, Chen, Zhang, Song, Zhao, Chen, 2007; Schmidt, Olicker, 2004). As industries in large cities expanded, the resources required to manufacture goods produced pollution in the air (Chen, Ebenstein, Greenstone, Li, 2013; Chen, Kan, Chen, Jiang, Hong,Read MoreChinese Economic Development And Structure Problem986 Words   |  4 Pages Chinese economic development and structure problem Key question: China s economy, (China s economic have increased of Efficiency Analysis .) China s economic high speed growth can be remained? PESTEL China s economic have increased of Efficiency Analysis . After Chine revolution , Chinese economic have increase very fast , take GDP for a example,after economic revolution , about annual growth rate have keep or more than double-digit , this is very crazy. However ,according to the explain

The Strength Of Silence An Analysis Of The Stronger

The Strength of Silence: An Analysis of â€Å"The Stronger† by August Strindberg When one thinks of great playwrights that have changed the theatre the first name that one may think of is Shakespeare. Everyone will agree that he was great at what he did. One person’s work that many people may not recognize is August Strindberg. â€Å"The Stronger† by August Strindberg is one of his best one-act plays. Not only is â€Å"The Stronger† a great one act, it also only uses the voice of one actor. Strindberg’s â€Å"The Stronger† is based on the conversation between two women. The names of the women are never mentioned, so reader and interpreters just give the characters the names â€Å"Mrs. X† and â€Å"Miss Y.† During the one act play, Mrs. X speaks the entire time. Mrs. X first runs into Miss Y at a bar/restaurant. The conversation starts off pretty innocent as Mrs. X tells Miss Y about the gifts that Mrs. X bought for her children and husband. When Mrs. X mentioned her husband, she began to tell Miss Y that she could have had a husband and children by now. As their one-sided conversation escalates into Mrs. X telling Miss Y about all the women who try to seduce her husband, she informs Miss Y that she knows about Miss Y’s and Mrs. X’s husband’s affair. Mrs. X slowly realizes that her husband’s new fixations come from the intimate time that he had spent with Miss Y. This realization could be a possible lead to why Mrs. X unconsciously changed herself to become as much like Miss Y as she could be. One mayShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Still I Rise By Maya Angelou993 Words   |  4 PagesMy Black is Brave, My Black is Strong Strength. Strength can be seen in the readings that we have encountered this semester. Blacks have been through a lot ever since coming to this country called â€Å"America.† From being beaten, oppressed, and even worst, killed. Whites have always felt that Blacks had to be controlled because they were â€Å"property† but obtaining the obedience from Blacks was not a simple task. So in order to get the control of the people in the Black community, Whites thought thatRead MoreTolerance For Ambiguity, Learning Style, Dominant Conflict Management Styles, And Dominant Reactions1610 Words   |  7 Pagesdomination among the members as it would only destroy the peace and focus on the goal. Strength would be team player, hard worker, focused on achieving target, etc. should be able to balance work and personal life and never let one come in the others path. In this paper I will talk about Tolerance for ambiguity, learning style, dominant conflict management styles, and domin ant reactions to dissonance. Analysis: Tolerance for ambiguity: Ambiguity is a psychological construct which describes the relationshipRead MoreThe Book On The Genealogy Of Morality1423 Words   |  6 Pagesthemselves and their way of life as ‘good’, while ‘bad’ simply referred to anything that was not noble – â€Å"everything lowly, low-minded, common and plebeian† (OGM, Sec. I.2). In contrast, the morality of slaves discusses a position of weakness rather than strength. It starts by redefining the masters’ values as ‘evil’, while ‘good’ refers to anything opposed to that of ‘evil’. Unable to create their own original values, the slaves instead invert the values of their masters. This makes the master morality affirmativeRead MoreComparison Of 1984 And Watership Down927 Words   |  4 Pagesinto silence. When the party in 1984 controls history and facts, it leads to double think. Doublethink is when you hold two contradicting thought s in your head at once. The inner party people are quite good at this because its a skill they need to use, when they tell people 2+2=5 they must hold that belief in their head while also knowing 2+2=4. O’Brian, one of the lead antagonists, shows us this when he tries to â€Å"re-educate† Winston. â€Å"War is peace; Freedom is slavery; Ignorance is strength† (OrwellRead MoreCharacter Analysis of Hester from The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne977 Words   |  4 PagesCharacter Analysis of Hester from The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne With nothing now to lose in the sight of mankind, and with no hope, and seemingly no wish, of gaining anything, it could only be a genuine regard for virtue that had brought back the poor wanderer to its paths. (153) With his precise diction Nathaniel Hawthorne displays an interesting conflict based on a disagreement between the protagonist, Hester Prynne, and the strict Puritan society around her in his novel TheRead MoreJanie in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston1046 Words   |  5 Pagesfor love but rather than her quest for sense of security and independence. Janie’s improvement has been charted along the way as she studies the use of language and discovering her relationship to her own voice. At the end of her journey, Janie is stronger and more confident then she was when returns to Eatonville. As a young girl, Janie has some romantic bones in her body (Shmoop Editorial Team). Her magical experience underneath a blossoming pear tree has a profound effect on her; she associatesRead MoreAnalysis Of Moonlight 1435 Words   |  6 PagesStructural Analysis of Moonlight In Moonlight (2016), the PROTAGONIST is a black boy called Chiron Harris or Little, who is thin and small. His PROBLEM in the first 10 minutes is that he is chased by three boys, who try to bully him. His WEAKNESS is that he is always bullied by others, but he is quiet and shy that he is not being willing to talk to strangers or speak out. Hence, he is a rebellious teenager. This causes him to display BAD BEHAVIOR by not returning to his home like he supposed toRead MoreGender Roles In Antigone1547 Words   |  7 PagesAntigone, which left her angry, yet still determined to bury her brother. She knew that burying her brother could lead to her own death, but she continued to show courage, strength, and determination throughout her role. In the beginning, Antigone says, â€Å"Dear god, shout it from the rooftops. I’ll hate you all the more for silence/ tell the world!†(17,100-101). This was said to Ismene, when they were discussing burial plans and Ismene was telling An tigone that she was against the plan. Antigone’s dialogueRead MoreVoice, By James Tate State s Style And Voice Serve As A Means Of Seduction2024 Words   |  9 Pagestone of my poem â€Å"Arctic Fox† and therefore a stronger voice presides due to this unique tone. Additionally, attention to sound is critical in creating an active voice. In James Tate Introduction, Tate notices the importance of sound, â€Å"Poetry speaks against an essential backdrop of silence† (Introduction Page 19). Tate stresses the importance of sound, as a lack of sound results in a silent voice. I decided to take Tate’s advice and shattered the ‘silence’ by using an unfamiliar voice in my Poem â€Å"ArcticRead MoreThe Crucifixion Of Jesus Christ1740 Words   |  7 Pagesobvious plot against Jesus and wanted to let him go, but Pilate was under pressure from Rome to keep peace in his territory. The last thing he needed was a rebellion over this quiet and seemingly insignificant man. It is important to note that Jesus’ silence fulfilled the words of the prophet Isaiah. Knowing this part of the story allows us to see the culture and situation more clearly. By stepping through the doorway into the story, we are given the opportunity to ta ke the side of either the crowd or

Professional Marketing Report on Armani Free Essays

A target market has also been chosen and studied and has appealed to the female racket. Market segmentation is also taken into consideration with the introduction of a new product as it identifies target markets by groups, which are identified by similar and distinguishable aspects while using the different segmentation groups. The report focuses on a ‘personal’ profile of an individual from the target audience as well as using a score card approach along with perceptual mapping, which Indicates what the strengths and weaknesses of the fragrance may be. We will write a custom essay sample on Professional Marketing Report on Armani or any similar topic only for you Order Now The fourth section of the report focuses on the product Itself as well as the different levels that are Involved In guaranteeing that the product Includes all complexities that encourage consumers to purchase the fragrance. The core, embodied and augmented levels of a product all have their own significant roles in the creation of a well-known brand. Giorgio Airman have considered whether keeping their obvious attributes or not for the packaging and the branding of their new fragrance would confuse consumers of this well-known brand. However the new fragrance may have a different look to it, but still has the Giorgio Airman logo to reassure loyal customers of the brand’s integrity. The fragrance will be classified as a premium fragrance, however Giorgio Airman have set their prices so that consumers that earn a medium income can also afford to purchase the new fragrance. This allows consumers with a medium to high Income to afford the product depending on the size bottle they wish to purchase. Promotion of the fragrance Is needed and the use of the pull and push strategy Is used to convince the target audience to purchase the product. Promotional material such as billboards, advertisements on the television, ‘pop-up’ advertisements on the internet and advertisements in fashion magazines will be used to ensure publicity of the product and the report states how this will be achieved. Lastly, the distribution strategy is taken into consideration that involves the consistency of those of the competing suppliers. The places of distribution that Giorgio Airman will be introducing its new fragrance to will be discussed as well as the reasons behind the choice they have made to target certain wholesalers. How to cite Professional Marketing Report on Armani, Essays

Assistive Technology Health and Social Care

Questions: 1.1 Explain how technology can be used to support users of health and social care services in living independently 1.2 Analyse barriers to the use of technology to support users of health and social care services in living independently 1.3 Explain the benefits of these technologies to health and social care organisations and their users 2.1 Explain health and safety considerations in the use of technologies in health and social care 2.2 Discuss ethical considerations in the use of technologies in health and social care 2.3 Explain the impact of recent and emerging technological developments on health and social services, organisations and care workers 3.1 Identify the specific needs of an individual requiring support to live independently 3.2 Make recommendations for how technologies might support the independent living arrangements 3.3 Evaluate the usefulness of technology for users off health and social care services Answers: Introduction Supportive independent living Independent living implies that people with disabilities enjoy the same freedom, choice, dignity and control as people without disabilities do at home, at work, and in the community. It means living on ones own or by oneself or fending for oneself while exercising rights as citizens to practical assistance and support from the state to participate in society and live an ordinary or near normal life. The seven needs of independent living are as follows: Peer support Personal Assistance Housing Technology Access Information Transport Techno Aid is a company that specialises in technology that can be of help to individuals who need access to health and social care services and live independently. As more people access independent living funds and become employers of their own personal assistances, the balance is shifting from dependency towards independence. 1.1 Assistive Technology is defined in the Technology-Related Assistance Act (Tech Act) as "any item piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities" (Tech Act, 1988). Assistive technology can be made at home and custom designed for an individual, purchased at a local store, or ordered out of a catalogue that is targeted toward people with disabilities and their families. The technology relevant to an individual can be high tech or low tech. Examples of low tech technology include ramps, switches, switch-operated toys, communication boards, car door openers, Dyce (non-skid material), preachers, roll-in showers, and Velcro. Some high tech examples are computers, software, extended keyboards, electronic communication devices, power wheelchairs, and van lifts for wheelchairs. Assistive technology cannot make the disability go away; but it can lessen the impact of the disability. (Moore, 1991). Assistive technology aims to provide independence and improve an individual's outlook on life. Besides, it can help students access education and enable adults to secure a job. Individuals with disabilities can become an integral part of the community and engage in pursuits like education, leisure activities and work - with the appropriate technology. However, assistive technology is not without its problems or barriers. Many times the devices that are needed are very expensive and resources are not readily available; or the equipment is purchased and no training or support system is in place to teach individual how to use it effectively; or the device simply breaks down and needs to be repaired (Moore, 1991). The three technology devices that can prove to be useful are sensor and alarm systems and Braille books for visually impaired people and power recliner wheelchairs for the disabled Tele care is used to describe sensors or detectors (for example movement, flood, gas, smoke or fall detectors) that automatically send a signal through a base unit connected to a telephone line to a care facility, community alarm or monitoring service which can call for assistance when it is needed. According to the Royal Commission on long term care, (1999) a person suffering from dementia is not required to press a button or dial a number to raise an alarm. For example, if a sensor detects gas, smoke, water or a fall, it can send a signal to a community alarm service automatically to be able to receive an appropriate response. The response could include providing reassurance, contacting an agreed key holder from the family, friend or caregiver to provide help, or if the need arises contacting the emergency services. A loud speaker on the alarm base unit allows the call center to communicate with the person. Irrespective of whether the affected individual is able to respond verbally or the distance of the individual from the loud speaker the service will send help. The invention of Louis Braille (1809-1852), who turned blind by accident at the age of three years, changed the world of reading and writing forever for the visually impaired. When Louis was 12 Charles Barbier while giving a talk at the school that Louis attended shared an invention called the night writing, a code that used 12 dots. The code allowed soldiers to share confidential information on the war field without the need to speak. But the code was not easy for the soldiers to learn, but not so for Louis. Louis reduced Barbiers 12 dots to 6, perfected the system by the time he was 15, and published the first Braille book ever in 1829. He continued to improvise and by 1837 he was able to add symbols for music and math. Acceptance was slow so blind students had to study Braille on their own. Even at the royal institution, where Louis taught after he graduated, Braille was taught only after his death. Braille began to gain worldwide acceptance in 1868. A group of men from the Royal National Institute for the Blind took to the task of spreading its reach. Today every country uses Braille. Braille books help blind people receive education and Braille signs help to get around when they are outdoors. And most importantly blind people can communicate easily. The development of assistive technology has brought many possibilities for the visually impaired in the areas of education and employment. Through the use of other technology enabled devices, the blind and visually impaired can perform many day to day activities on their own particularly in reading and learning. An example of a need based innovation is the electronic battery operated wheelchair. The wheelchair is a complex piece of equipment that has been extensively engineered and studied. Most individuals with spinal cord injury become wheelchair experts because doing so increases their chances of getting a wheelchair that truly meets their need. 1.2 Analysis of barriers of the use of technology to support users of health and social care services in living independently The major barrier in use of technology by users living independently is the difficulty faced in choosing devices from available technology suitable for their specific needs. The following example illustrates how an elderly couple was helped in making the choice. The two key priorities for investment in tele care are prevention from falls and mental health services for older people. Other considerations were to use technology as a contributory factor in helping to avoid residential care and avoidable hospital admissions. The following example clarifies the point. Mr and Mrs B, an elderly couple lived within a sheltered housing scheme for years. Mr B has been his wifes carer for ever since she was diagnosed with Parkinsons disease. Mrs Bs mobility has steadily deteriorated over years, so has her memory. Mr B has found it difficult to care for his wife and many of his and her social life has been put on hold. Mr B was becoming uncomfortable at the thought of leaving his wife for even small periods of time for fear of her safety. As a result of this he was compelled to feel isolated, and had little opportunity to socialise. Even though living in a sheltered accommodation which was well equipped with emergency pull cords and access to pendant ala rms, Mrs Bs memory problems were such that she was not able to use them. In order to measure the risks Mrs B was helped to complete a questionnaire and she was examined by an occupational therapist. It was identified that Mrs B was at a high risk of falling, particularly while trying to rise from her chair on her own. All available options were discussed, and the assistive technology advised was the use of a fall detector. This device is worn on the waist band of a skirt, trousers or in a specially designed pouch depending on the choice of apparel. 1.3 Explanation of the benefit of available technology to health and social care organisations and their users. The benefits of using assistive technology are evident in the way their use transforms the lives of the users and their families. A general sense of independence and well being is enhanced. The Fall Detector was particularly beneficial to Mrs B as it did not require any input from the user. If Mrs B fell, the detector would sense the tilt of her body, and this would set off the alarm automatically at the call centre. The call centre personnel would alert Mr B on his mobile telephone. After a trial of few months, Mr B was asked to give his feedback on the Fall Detector and whether it had made any difference to his insecurities about leaving his wife unattended even for short periods. His feedback said it all as he said it as brilliant, and added that I can go out, have a game of cards with friends, or go to the shops without worrying. If Mrs B does fall Mr B now feels confident and reassured since he can respond quickly in case of a fall. He says, it has given me real peace of mind. Mr B can now continue caring for his wife, without feeling socially bereft. Using tele care allows for actual improvements to the quality of support and helps them and their care givers to fe el safe, reassured, able to have a better grip over their day-to-day lives and minimise the risks that compromise independence. This strategy will ensure the consideration of Tele care throughout the customer pathway, from the earliest point of contact right through to complex, care-managed cases, with the aim of supporting people to maintain or improve on their level of independence and avoid hospital or residential/nursing care admissions. Electric powered indoor wheelchair (EPIC) is an electrically powered wheelchair to be used within the clients home. The client must have difficulty in walking or self-propelling in a manual wheelchair within the home. Adequate space is required for the wheelchair to move, including footplates and a suitable space with a power supply for charging the batteries overnight. The client must practically demonstrate they are able to independently and effectively control the wheelchair within the internal environment, taking into account impediments, hazards and/or risks. Braille books are available in many libraries (like the Library of Congress) and schools for the blind. The production of Braille books made use of metal plates. Characters were stamped on both sides of the paper where the dots on one side do not interfere with those on the other side. But now, computers have made the process of publishing Braille books easier. The text is typed into the computer and, with the help of a software program; it is translated automatically into Braille. The computer then transfers the output onto printed paper or metal plates as required. Braille reading helps blind people to socialise with people for example, going to restaurant with friends and finding a restaurant that has a braille menu book encourages the service user to select what he/she would like to eat and instills a sense of independence. 2.1 Explanation of health and safety considerations in use of technology in health and social care In the near future, propelled by the concept of internet of things, new homes, public and private, and all renovated social housing, will be fitted with the devices for care and medical services to be provided in real time via broadband from day one of occupation. A number of studies suggest that disintegrated and inaccessible clinical information raises the cost and lowers the quality of health care and compromises patient safety. Information technology has been proposed as an essential tool in solving these problems and promoting better health care. When used in social context and the area of care giving, technology contributes to supporting a better life, reinstating human dignity, right of self determination, inclusion, and caring. Thus the three technology equipment can be used by service users. The use of technology is agreed upon in collaboration with the user while deciding the user plan. For example, an elderly woman living on her own was suggested the use of wheel chair for her independence and the alarm for her safety. Because she is an elderly person, the chosen technology must be easy to use and suit her lifestyle and health condition. The disadvantages and the risk related to its use should be assessed, and information about how to use should be provided in user friendly formats. Within the health and social care sectors, there is huge potential for information technology (IT) to support practice with greater safety. Several things can go wrong if information is incomplete or incorrect or if glitches in the system interfere with critical processes such as prescribing medication. The use of safety standards for IT required in health and social care should ensure that risks are identified in real time a nd can then be nullified before the product actually used. Organisations that purchase and use IT enabled systems are advised to take measures that understand system risks and take suitable action, such as staff training, to ensure that systems are operated safely while implementing the service.. 2.2 Ethical considerations in use of technologies in health and social care. Equipment may be provided to help the individual at their residence and customized to meet their specific needs. It can be as simple as the basic alarm system base on sensors and able to respond in case of an emergency and provide constant support via telephone (Department of Health, 2005). Tele care can also be used in a preventative manner for keeping track of an individuals health parameters or general wellbeing (for example, by using sensors on the bed programmed to record the number of times a person leaves the bed during the course of one night). The technology involved in tele care services has been used for many years to give care to older people, usually in the form of pendant alarms. This technology has great potential to benefit people by boosting their confidence and assisting them to remain independent bur cared for in their own homes. By monitoring peoples safety, technology can also ease the lives of friends and family care givers so they can perform the task of givinging social support. It is important that giving care through assistive technology does not threaten their right to privacy. Deciding on the choice of type of technology used is critical and should suit the needs of the elderly and disabled. One needs to be alert against misuse or unintentional leaks of personal information. Oversight in these aspects could compromise people's privacy, autonomy and wellbeing. A careful assessment of risks can be balanced by taking care at the time of installation. Consent of patients with dementia should be taken before installation so that they are included in decision making. Practice points for an ethical approach to tele care Pre-installation phase: The principal ethical concern during the pre- installation phase is that services should be customized to suit individual needs and that when considering appropriate tele care the risks of the person coming to harm should be balanced against their right to autonomy and participation. Post-installation phase the main ethical concern during the post-installation phase is that tele care information should be collected for a positive purpose and with the consent of the person concerned and desired safety mechanism should be applied. The risks of invading individual privacy should be balanced against independence. For example, an elderly man lives in a shared residential home and has his own flat where he can cook for himself and be independent. He has lived alone since his wife past away 15 years ago. He does not allow anyone else to cook for him. Because his age is advanced, he was advised to use the tele care alarm to monitor his safety and health. The cost of the alarm is not high for the government. Ever since he has the alarm his care plan has been changed and he can now receive meals on wheels food. He now has the confidence and is not frightened anymore. However, this situation is not limited to tele care commissioning and provision. Practitioners are well accustomed to balancing the risks and conflict between meeting policy aspirations and dealing with the realities of frontline practice. 2.3 The impact of recent and emerging technological developments on health and social care services, organisations and care worker There is evidence that new technologies can improve the quality of care processes by improving communication, applying standard processes, and enhancing workflow, when used in conjunction with existing care rather than as a substitution. For example, a survey of GP practices in countries such as Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the US have found that health systems that promote new technologies and information system based infrastructure are better able to address care coordination and patient safety issues and maintain the satisfaction of GPs. In England, researchers studied how electronic patient records influenced the way staff members interact with each other during critical care ward rounds compared with paper based records. Upon analysis of videos, general observation and interviews, they found that it was difficult for the ward round team to interact with each other using the electronic record as compared to paper records. The ph ysical setup of the technology was an impediment for consultants when leading the ward round and prevented other clinical staff from contributing to discussions. There are numerous examples of the benefits of new technologies. A literature review found that information technology supported a systematic approach to diabetes management in general practice. New information technologies have been used to support patients, enhance changes in healthcare delivery and provide clinicians with access to expertise and data about individual patients and populations. Such technologies have been associated with improved diabetes symptoms and enhanced tracing of risk factors. There is sufficient evidence that introducing new technologies can make a significant difference to the quality and safety of care. For instance, proactive tele- care assisted by decision support software has been found to improve clinical outcomes or reduce symptoms in people with depression, heart disease, diabetes, asthma and the frail elderly, amongst others. Similarly, telemedicine based consultations have been available for some years and more recently diagnostic services such as pathology and radiology are beginning to embrace this new technology. Tele radiology and tele- pathology allow medical services to be delivered across vast distances, including across national and international boundaries and facilitate patient recuperation at home. Using technology in this way can be particularly valuable in remote communities where transporting patients and medical practitioners is difficult. Practitioners other than doctors deliver much of the healthcare in rural communities, so it has been suggested that it is essential to ensure that nurses and support staff are IT-enabled and technologically savvy. On the positive side, new technologies have an impact on how staff can be trained and updated. Examples include simulation technology, accessing information via handheld devices, interactive DVDs and onli ne training. Literature suggests that nurses and allied professionals think that computer skills should be taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum or as basic training and that staff is willing to undertake web based learning for continuing professional development in this area. Other useful training requirements include information literacy, privacy and security of health information, and techniques for identifying and adopting new technologies. In the NHS, assessing and training teams in technical skills may be a priority. Research suggests that cell phone applications can significantly reduce the cost of treating young people with severe asthma due to more frequent communication between patients and their medical teams, and by motivating patients to become more engaged and knowledgeable about their care. 3.1 An identification of the specific needs of an individual requiring support to live independently. A spinal cord injury (SCI) may cause a loss of movement and feeling below the site of injury. One can suffer from a spinal cord injury due to trauma, such as a car accident or a fall. Spinal cord injuries are either complete or incomplete. It results in no feeling or movement below the site of the injury. Partial injury allows some feeling and movement. People with spinal cord injuries also may have other problems, such as not being able to control urination and bowel movements. When spinal cords are injured in the neck often need devices to help them breathe. Therefore each client must be assessed as an individual, because no two clients are the same. Customised help is usually required to suit the needs of each patient. Electric wheelchairs are designed for an independent life and can be fitted with a host of drive bases, adjustable seating systems and expandable control systems. With spinal cord injuries (spinal cord injuries), there is a general set of clinical expectations based on where the injuries occurred. But in reality, patients with spinal cord injuries, even those with injuries in the same location, can have significantly different problem sets. And for clients with injuries at the fifth or sixth cervical vertebra the differences from client to client can be even greater. For these clients, electric wheelchairs custom fit to their required specifications can offer independent mobility indoors and outdoors. In addition the client should also have the ability to pronate his/her wrist as well as extend it and complete a tenodesis pattern passive thumb adduction on the index finger during active wrist extension which can also lead to a better, stronger push on the rear wheels. C6 injuries, if complete, typically result in lack of finger movement, wrist flexion and elbow extension, but good control of elbow flexion and wrist extension. The mobility requirements determine the many practical activities and tasks that need to be carried out every day. The tasks they will perform at work need to be considered. Whether they have to carry items, and whether they can push and do this at the same time. Everyday tasks, such as grocery shopping, visiting the bank, getting hair done, eating out, should be considered while making equipment choices.. 3.2 Recommendation for how technologies might support the independent living arrangements. The use of power wheel chair is the best for patient for in and out door mobility besides ability to move around in the environment. How to use it in residential homes can be learnt through staff support. It facilitates lot of changes in care environment and gives the client the autonomy to move about in the environment they are living in. The client gets trained in how to use the technology device through the mass controller. People need a power wheel chair as repositioning device to aid in prevention of pressure sores. Some manufacturers produce 140- 180 degree power seat which is helpful for people with certain medical conditions. When it comes to recommendation a battery powered wheel chair can be the best when discussing options with therapist through assessment of individual needs. Some wheel chairs are equipped with a power leg where you can move your leg and also power seat elevation, this will help client to facilitate in doing things they are used to do for example cooking in the kitchen. A power chair can provide power seating functions that can ensure independence with pressure reliefs. Clinicians and providers may have to consider recommending changes to seating and mobility equipment decisions as a clients medical condition changes. There are many changes that occur over a lifetime that can result in a change in recommendation. Some of these include changes in the patients functional level, either continued recovery or a functional decline; changes in shoulder, elbow or finger range of motion, development of upper-extremity pain, change in daily routine or activities, change in life plan and, therefore, mobility goals, etc. The power chair is a vehicle to get to a destination and maintaining independence across all aspects of life. 3.3 An evaluation of the usefulness of technology for users of health and social care services. The patients choices should be considered. It is very important to actively involve the patient in the evaluation process and have an open discussion/interview regarding their expectations about mobility goals. If they have a desire to drive, how would they like to do that? What kind of vehicle are they hoping to obtain? If they would like to travel, where would they like to go? How will they be getting there? During evaluations consideration of what clinically related changes could be anticipated need to be taken into account. Power assist functions require a very careful assessment, as while the wheels add power and distance covered, there is a safety issue of control of the wheels and wheelchair, which requires upper-extremity fine motor coordination and control. Talking with patients when they are having trouble accepting power mobility and helping them to understand the consequences of their decision can be undeniably difficult and time consuming. But Brown points out that these discussions are crucial to achieving a good outcome. Ultimately, the decision is up to the patient, and it is important that they feel that way. Pressuring them into something is not the answer. It could result in abandonment of the selected technology. It is important to fully understand the patients and/or the caregivers primary goals for the mobility device, related to all aspects of their life. Perhaps neither style of chair will make them independent with all of their mobility goals, but which type will check off the most items on their list in the safest and most efficient fashion? This decision is made on a completely individual basis. Although assistive technology increases independence and improves individuals life. It helps individual from different group such as elderly, young ones and adult. Assistive technology device are expensive and effective equipment. Tele care alarm, Power recliner chair and Braille books are assistive technology used for different individual groups in residential homes for their own independence. The use of (IT) information technology protects information from being leaked out or missing concerning confidentiality in health and social care sector in NHS. The main ethical consideration of tele care in residential homes for older people, protect them from danger. The impact of assistive technology of tele care improves clinical outcomes. The new assistive technology has been impacted that all staff needs to be trained before using any equipment at workplace in health and social care sector. Client with spinal cord injury used power wheel chair because is very effective and easy to move a bout for day to day activities in terms of independent, but is expensive. Similarly, for elderly patients depending on alarm systems of different kinds, technology may have to be regularly updated to suit their changing needs. New products that cater to specific requirements may have to be installed. Care givers need to be educated on the availability and suitability of such devices. According to Han, YY adopting new technology carefully is key to its success after considering all its pros and cons. Samore MH has cautioned against medical device related hazards to the patients. References Bahlman DT Johnson FC 2005, Using technology to improve and support: communication and workflow processes. AORN J vol 82, pp 56-73. Squires M, Bieslada D Fanizza R. 2005 New approaches to improving patient safety: strategy, technology and funding.Healthc Q.vol 8 no 3, pp1202. Han YY, Carcillo JA, Venkataraman ST, et al. 2005. Unexpected increased mortality after implementation of a commercially sold computerized physician order entry system.Pediatricsvol 116 pp 150612. Ammenwerty E, Iller C, Mahler C. 2006 IT-adoption and the interaction of task, technology and individuals: a fit framework and a case study.BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. vol 9, no 6 pp 3. Sixsmith A, Orpwood R Torrington J. 2007 Quality of life technologies for people with dementia.Topics Geriatr Rehabil.Vol 23 pp 8593. LoPresti EF, Mihailidis A Kirsch N. 2004 Assistive technology for cognitive rehabilitation: state of the art. Neuropsychol Rehabil.Vol 14 pp 539. Sixsmith A, Johnson N. 2004. Smart sensor to detect the fall of the elderly.IEEE Pervasive Comput. Vol 3 pp 4247. Samore MH, Evans RS, Lassen A, et al. 2004. Surveillance of medical device-related hazards and adverse events in hospitalized patients.JAMA vol 291 pp 325334. Fuhrer MJ, Jutai JW, Sherer MJ, et al. 2003. A framework for the conceptual modeling of assistive technology device outcomes.Disabil Rehabilvol 25 pp 124351. Collins JW. Safe lifting policies. in:. 2005.Handle with care: a practice guide for safe patient handling and movement.Nelson AL, editor. New York: Springer Publishing. pp. 151162. Green SA. 2001. The evolution of medical technology.Clin Orthop Relat Res.vol 385 pp 2606. Nadzam DM Mackles RM. 2001. Promoting patient safety: is technology the solution?Jt Comm J Qual Improv. Vol 27, pp 4306. Alzheimers society, leading the fight against dementia. Available at:https://www.alzheimers.org.ukpolicyposition statements. (6/02/15) Assistive Technology Devices for the blind and visually impaired. Available at: https: //www.chinchin.hubpages.com/hub/assistive-technology-for-the-blind. (30/01/15) How-do-new-technologies impact on workforce organisation. Available at:https://www.skillsforhealth.org.ukResearch Thames (23/2/15). Mobility Management serving the seating and mobility community. Available at:https://www.mobilitymgmt.com/articles/2013/01/01/sci-c5c6-power-manual.aspx. Social Care Institute for Excellence. Ethical issues in the use of Tele Care. Availableat:https://www.scie.org.uk/publications/report/reports30pdf. Wogalter MS Mayhorn CB. 2005. Providing cognitive support with technology based warning systems.Ergonomics.vol 48 pp 52233.

The Deficit For Those Economics Classes Essays - Fiscal Policy

The Deficit for Those Economics Classes here's one on the deficit for those economics classes Subject: the deficit good or bad Deficit Spending ?Spending financed not by current tax receipts, but by borrowing or drawing upon past tax reserves.? , Is it a good idea? Why does the U.S. run a deficit? Since 1980 the deficit has grown enormously. Some say its a bad thing, and predict impending doom, others say it is a safe and stable necessity to maintain a healthy economy. When the U.S. government came into existence and for about a 150 years thereafter the government managed to keep a balanced budget. The only times a budget deficit existed during these first 150 years were in times of war or other catastrophic events. The Government, for instance, generated deficits during the War of 1812, the recession of 1837, the Civil War, the depression of the 1890s, and World War I. However, as soon as the war ended the deficit would be eliminated and the economy which was much larger than the amounted debt would quickly absorb it. The last time the budget ran a surplus was in 1969 during Nixon's presidency. Budget deficits have grown larger and more frequent in the last half-century. In the 1980s they soared to record levels. The Government cut income tax rates, greatly increased defense spending, and didn't cut domestic spending enough to make up the difference. Also, the deep recession of the early 1980s reduced revenues, raising the deficit and forcing the Government to spend much more on paying interest for the national debt at a time when interest rates were high. As a result, the national debt grew in size after 1980. It grew from $709 billion to $3.6 trillion in 1990, only one decade later. Increase of National Debt Since 1980 Month Amount -------------------------------------------- 12/31/1980 $930,210,000,000.00 * 12/31/1981 $1,028,729,000,000.00 * 12/31/1982 $1,197,073,000,000.00 * 12/31/1983 $1,410,702,000,000.00 * 12/31/1984 $1,662,966,000,000.00 * 12/31/1985 $1,945,941,616,459.88 12/31/1986 $2,214,834,532,586.43 12/31/1987 $2,431,715,264,976.86 12/30/1988 $2,684,391,916,571.41 12/29/1989 $2,952,994,244,624.71 12/31/1990 $3,364,820,230,276.86 12/31/1991 $3,801,698,272,862.02 12/31/1992 $4,177,009,244,468.77 12/31/1993 $4,535,687,054,406.14 12/30/1994 $4,800,149,946,143.75 10/31/1995 $4,985,262,110,021.06 11/30/1995 $4,989,329,926,644.31 12/29/1995 $4,988,664,979,014.54 01/31/1996 $4,987,436,358,165.20 02/29/1996 $5,017,040,703,255.02 03/29/1996 $5,117,786,366,014.56 04/30/1996 $5,102,048,827,234.22 05/31/1996 $5,128,508,504,892.80 06/28/1996 $5,161,075,688,140.93 07/31/1996 $5,188,888,625,925.87 08/30/1996 $5,208,303,439,417.93 09/30/1996 $5,224,810,939,135.73 10/01/1996 $5,234,730,786,626.50 10/02/1996 $5,235,509,457,452.56 10/03/1996 $5,222,192,137,251.62 10/04/1996 $5,222,049,625,819.53 * Rounded to Millions Federal spending has grown over the years, especially starting in the 1930s in actual dollars and in proportion to the economy (Gross Domestic Product, or GDP). Beginning with the "New Deal" in the 1930s, the Federal Government came to play a much larger role in American life. President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to use the full powers of his office to end the Great Depression. He and Congress greatly expanded Federal programs. Federal spending, which totaled less than $4 billion in 1931, went up to nearly $7 billion in 1934 and to over $8 billion in 1936. Then, U.S. entry into World War II sent annual Federal spending soaring to over $91 billion by 1944. Thus began the ever increasing debt of the United States. What if the debt is not increasing as fast as we think it is? The dollar amount of the debt may increase but often times so does the amount of money or GDP to pay for the debt. This brings up the idea that the deficit could be run without cost. How could a deficit increase productivity without any cost? The idea of having a balanced budget is challenged by the ideas of Keynesian Economics. Keynesian economics is an economic model that predicts in times of low demand and high unemployment a deficit will not cost anything. Instead a deficit would allow more people to work, increasing productivity. A deficit does this because it is invested into the economy by government. For example if the government spends deficit money on new highways, trucking will benefit and more jobs will be produced. When an economic system is in recession all of its resources are not being used. For example if the government did not build highways we could not ship goods and there would be less demand for them. The supply remains low even though we have the ability to produce more because we cannot ship them. This non-productivity comes at a cost to the whole economic system. If deficit spending eliminates non-productivity then its direct monetary cost will be offset if not surpassed by increased productivity. For example in the 1980's when the huge deficits were adding up the actual additions to the public capital or increased productivity were often as big, or bigger than the deficit.

Compare and contrast the ways in which Owen and Sassoon present images of suffering and death in Exposure and The Hero Essays

Compare and contrast the ways in which Owen and Sassoon present images of suffering and death in Exposure and The Hero Essays Compare and contrast the ways in which Owen and Sassoon present images of suffering and death in Exposure and The Hero Essay Compare and contrast the ways in which Owen and Sassoon present images of suffering and death in Exposure and The Hero Essay Essay Topic: A Long Way Gone Owen and Sassoon are both famous poets, who wrote their poems during and about the First World War. Wilfred Owen was very descriptive poet, who wrote in great details about all that he saw, using much poetic and flowing language. Siegfried Sassoon however was very cynical about the people running the war, and could not see a point in all the death going on all around. However, they both fought in the war and since they should have many experiences of war in common, their poems should surely have very common themes and views, and those should be typical of the time. However, after examining the poems closely, one can determine that there are a great amount of differences between the two poems. In Exposure, Owen uses much descriptive language to allow the reader to perfectly understand and almost feel the suffering that is going on in this war. He describes the wind as iced and knifing, which in itself would be painful; he personifies the wind to a point, because it is stabbing him, and only humans can do that. The suffering and pain that is going on will not and cannot stop, since in the distance, incessantly, the flickering gunnery rumbles. Owen seems to convey a sense of misery and hopelessness upon the whole situation. He even makes the morning sound miserable, since normally dawn means a fresh start, new beginnings, new hope; whereas here, dawn is simply a bringer of poignant misery. This emotion is quite sharp, stinging and painful. Owen also manages to separate war from everyday life, because the soldiers no longer know what is happening elsewhere: We only know war lasts, rain soaks, and clouds sag stormy. The use of the word sag seems to indicate gloominess and almost apathy, as if the clouds could no longer care to hold themselves in shape. Even the enemy (which in this case is the start of a new day which has been personified) is melancholy; everyone is suffering, there is no point to this war. If both sides are suffering, he seems to say, why should they both continue to go through this misery? Finally, to end the isolation felt by all, and to finalise the general amount of suffering and isolation that is being experience, Owen says that the love of God seems dying. The situation cannot get more desperate, and yet, in their hour of need, no help comes, and the desolation and pain just continues. However, in The Hero, suffering and pain is portrayed quite differently. Since the subject matter is completely different, the reasons and methods of portraying pain obviously differ. This poem is much more cynical in comparison to Exposure, because here the only suffering that is endured is purely due to second hand relation of news. The mothers voice is described as tired, perhaps because she has been completely drained by the news that her son is dead. Tired here seems to indicate that she has had enough. The anguish that she is going through comes out more with her voice that quavered to a choke. Quavering describes the voice almost wobbling, perhaps due to the mother crying, and the fact that it went to a choke shows how much this news has affected her. She tails off involuntarily, and is obviously choked and so overpowered by her grief that she cannot continue talking. This section of the poem describes her grief very delicately, like how Owen describes the elements of nature v ery carefully in Exposure. However, once we get to the third stanza, we find out the main truth of what happened to Jack, and the poem suddenly becomes very critical of authority, and it also becomes generally callous overall. Normally, one does not insult the memory of the dead, but here, the Brother Officer thinks about Jack in blunt terms; not softening the memory of his death at all, but just casually thinking what he thought at the time. The way he calls Jack a useless swine demonstrates this perfectly, swine highlighting how low his opinion was of Jack whilst he was still alive. He also calls him, although not out loud, cold-footed, showing how cowardly he was. Perhaps the insults were because Jack could simply not stand the suffering in the trenches however, since the Brother Officer doesnt think like that, the reader is still exposed to his criticism. This is completely unlike how Owen describes suffering, with great detail and much description; Sassoon just goes straight to the point. In both poems, there are also many mentions of death as a theme, and death is so final, that surely there should be only one way to describe it. However, since Owen and Sassoon have very differing views, the ways in which they portray death are very different. Wilfred Owen has many mentions of death in the final few stanzas of Exposure, whereas The Hero has many mentions of death throughout the poem, since the whole poem is referring to the death of Jack. In Exposure, Owen makes various mentions of death, which adds to the overall gloom and almost apprehension of what is to come throughout the poem. The narrator is sure that death is near: - Is it that we are dying?. You could also interpret snow-dazed as being close to death, since the soldiers are almost paralysed by the cold, which comes as such a shock that they are almost hypnotised and lose all their knowledge of what is going on around them. Again, Owen reinforces this with sun-dozed, which seems to imply that the soldiers are just lying on the ground, looking at the sun. He calls the soldiers drowsing- perhaps because they are close to death. The reminiscence that occurs in stanza 6 could be introspection and vision of their past before death. Our ghosts drag home: the very word drag shows how tired the soldiers are in life, and how much they want to be resting, preferably at home. The final mention of death is at the very end of the poem, in the final stanza, where many soldiers and in a way the narrator are described as being dead by the end of the evening. This shows in how Owen describes the frost as being fastened on the people, and the frost damages the bodies. Shrivelling many hands and the use of the word shrivelling really brings home the reality of death, but yet again, it is described in a very detailed, descriptive way. And finally, the bodies are removed by the burying-party, who pause over half-known faces. The dead were once alive and known by the living, but now that is gone. Finally, part of the very final line is the most haunting of all: all their eyes are ice, describing the burying-party, people who are still living, but yet are almost dead at the same time. Sassoon on the other hand in this case gives neither any dignity to the dead, nor to the Brother Officer who holds no respect for Jack. The way that Sassoon describes his death is very short, blunt and straight to the point: Blown to small bits. No mention of him even being human once, no long descriptive words; instead he is almost de-personified by the bluntness and the lack of caring that is shown to his death by anyone except his mother. Apathy seems to be a common theme here with Exposure, since the burying-party do not show much respect towards these dead, because they have seen so many. They no longer care about the matter of death, and neither does the Brother Officer. The fact that only Jacks mother cares about his death is quite poignant, and it does give a sense that there were so many casualties that people became immune to feeling suffering about death after a while. There are few similarities between these poems, but many differences. This is unexpected, since both poems are written at the same time about the same war, yet ultimately it is the personality and personal views of the author that influences what is written about.

Fracking and water pollution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fracking and water pollution - Research Paper Example fracking fluid, comprising of common toxins and carcinogens such as uranium, lead, mercury, methanol, formaldehyde, hydrochloric acid, ethane glycol etc (Spellman, 2013). Waste water resulting from fracking usually has a lot of potentially poisonous chemicals from the fracking fluid and natural contaminants from very deep in the ground, comprising of totally dissolved solids (such as barium, salts and strontium)radioactive materials like Radium 226 as well as organic pollutants like toluene and benzene. About thirty to seventy percent of all the fluid utilised in fracking is likely to resurface, and thus requires treatment. In addition, fracking discharges â€Å"produced water† mainly from underground which also ascends onto the surface, and mostly can be somewhere from two to two hundred times as much water, something dependent on the water/gas/oil absorption in the shale configuration. It has been proved therefore beyond any reasonable doubt that waste water arising due to fracking has a lot of possibly dangerous chemicals that were used in the fracking liquid, in addition to deep underground natural contaminants (Spellman, 2013). For these contaminants and chemicals to be removed, all techniques of wastewater management (comprising of reuse, recycling as well as injecting into dumping wells) normally entail some kind of treatment. Eventually, wastewater can be pumped to treatment works that are publicly owned or rather to dedicated industrial or brine wastewater plants, also known as centralized waste treatment plants, which might also add precipitation and coagulation methods in removing of dissolved solids. All treatment techniques produce residuals-which basically are waste materials, mainly in sludge, liquid or solid form, that mostly stay after treatment. Because of public concerns regarding the huge volumes of water used in hydraulic drilling, gas and oil fracturing corporations have begun not only reusing but also recycling the wastewater (Spellman,

The Vietnam War that made 1968 a Unique Year Essay

The Vietnam War that made 1968 a Unique Year - Essay Example Relevant information about the war is also recorded by Barbara Ehrenreich and John Ehrenreich, in the book, The International. This essay borrows most of the information from the two authors plus others and shows what they had in common. This will clearly bring out the full information regarding this horrific war in the rest of this essay. Vietnam War contributed to 1968 being a unique year in world history. It was on January 31, 1968, when the Tet Offensive was launched by the North Vietnamese together with Viet Cong forces which caused mass destruction and heavy losses to the U.S. and the South Vietnamese (Ehrenreich & John, 121). This was the lunar New Year holiday which was called Tet when attacks were made in the South Vietnam, out of which more than 100 towns were fiercely attacked. North Vietnam which is actually a communist society was in fight with their allies South Vietnam, a communist society and which obtained a back-up from the US army troops to fight the North Vietnamese (Kurlansky, 106). It was General Vo Nguyen Giap who came up with the plan of carrying out offensive attacks to South Vietnamese. The fight was so fierce and despite the fact that the U.S and the South Vietnamese were able to hold off the attacks made by the communists, they lost the battle to the North Vietnam (Ehrenreich & John, 122). However, North Vietnam suffered many casualties but victoriously pushe d out America from the region and this was regarded as the first phase of the battle which became to be the most famous. Thus, Vietnam War contributed to 1968 being a unique year in world history.

Miscarriages of Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Miscarriages of Justice - Essay Example This happens because of inefficient procedures . Second, the laws that are applied to them. Third, for there is no information that justifies the applied treatment or punishment. Fourth, if suspects, defendants or convicts are handled unfavorably by the state to an unequal extent compared with the necessity to protect the rights of others; or, fifth, if the rights of other persons are not effectively or equally protected or defended by State action against law violators or, sixth, by State law itself(Greer, 1986). For, the six groups above revolve around themes of breach of rights of suspects and defendants, the disproportionate treatment of suspects/defendants or the non-vindication of the rights of victims, might be termed direct miscarriages. In addition, it may be possible to derive from their infliction a seventh, indirect miscarriage which affects the community as a whole. A belief coming out of deceit or illegalities will corrode the state's claims to legitimacy. For, this is founded on the community criminal justice system's values which includes as respect for individual rights. In this way, as well as the unwanted faith of the individual, the "moral integrity of the criminal process" suffers harm(McConville, 1994). Also, there could be a common detriment by way of diminished confidence in the vanguards of law and order leading to lesser active citizens aiding the police and a decrease in the number of jurors willing to convict even the glaringly "guilty".Definitely, it has been deba ted that this indirect form of miscarriage can exist independently as well as contingently in two respects. One is that a breach of "the principle of judicial legitimacy" should be of concern even if there is an accurate and fair determination of guilt or innocence. Secondly, it still produces great moral harm even if, so far as the individual is concerned, there is an error but no real harm is inflicted (say, when a person imprisoned for life is wrongfully convicted soon afterwards of a minor motoring offence). It is therefore argued that the State itself should avoid actions or processes which might damage the integrity of the system. Consistent with this concern, lawyers, whether acting for prosecution or defence, are reminded that they are not the ciphers of their clients but owe duties of integrity to the criminal justice system(Poole, 1998). Critical examination why gender related crime is important to understanding relevant policies of the criminal justice policyIn the article stated that the gender equality duty and the criminal justice system April 2007: The Gender Equality Duty comes in to force, the gender equality duty has been the biggest radical metamorphosis to sex to sex discrimination law for the past thirty years. It is also similar to the introduction in 2001 of a similar public sector race equality duty after the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry and the introduction of a disability equality duty in December 2006. Furthermore, Fawcett publications of the Fawcett Society had published two reports to support the implementation of the Gender Equality Duty in the criminal justice system: The responsibility to understanding the "understand your duty" section details how the law should affect the criminal just

Effects of Manipulating Individual Identity

Effects of Manipulating Individual Identity Abstract: This study examined how changing the perception of social distance changed the way in which subjects interacted in the Trust Game specifically looking into the social preferences they displayed. A discussion of both economic and sociological research demonstrates the inherent variability of social identity and social distance and the interconnected nature these concepts have with social preferences. A two-stage experiment involving subjects of different nationalities and genders was carried out with a different identity focus in each stage. Findings show that subjects exhibit greater social preferences when interacting with those of a similar focused identity yet the degrees of these preferences displayed vary in accordance to the identity focus. Results suggest that social distance, although easily manipulated, is a powerful force in interactions. The results are consistent with previous studies into group membership, identity, nationality, gender and social preferences. Given this studys far-reaching implications it should be viewed as the premise for future study of this topic. Introduction The concept of social distance as elucidated by Akerlof (1997) is profoundly linked with social identity and social preferences. It is the differences in individuals social identities, including for example, race, gender, class and status, that determine the benefits of interaction and to what extent of social preferences are displayed. Yet when individuals are not entirely familiar with each other, the perception of social identities is based on very few observations and is therefore not entirely accurate. The purpose of this dissertation is to examine whether or not variations in the perception of social identity, and thus social distance, will affect the extent to which social preferences are manifested. Studies on the effect of identity are in no way new. Akerlof and Kranton (2000) studied its relevance and magnitude with regards to gender discrimination in the workplace, poverty and social exclusion, and the household division of labour. Akerlof (1997) also studied the effect of social distance, asserting that the social identity of individuals can substantially affect their interactions. What has not been tested, however, is to what extent identity is merely a perception. Individuals can and do possess multiple identities varying in dominance from situation to situation. The hypothesis of this paper is that social preferences are relevant in experimental games, but these are dependent on how each player perceives the others social identity, a perception that is inherently variable. Players react with varying degrees of self-interest according to the identity they perceive, even when identical character profiles are involved. Recent economic studies fail to sufficiently incorporate current sociological thinking as to the nature of social identity and although this study will give evidence for the relevance of social distance in determining degrees of social preferences, it will attempt to shed light on individuals inconsistent perception of the distance between them. In order to add weight to this position, an experiment was organised in which participants of various profiles were invited to play the Trust Game. Each game was played face-to-face with no verbal communication. The experiment was divided into two stages, a nationality focused stage and a gender focused stage. Each participant played the game twice and never with the same opposing player. Before each game, participants were assigned to certain rooms in which video clips were played depending on the identity focused on. In the first stage, participants were split into three rooms, one for each nationality present: Scottish, English and Chinese. After one play of the Trust Game, the experiment commenced its second stage and participants were split into two rooms, one for each gender, and again asked to play the game. The results show that there is significant variation in the degrees of social preferences displayed depending on the identity being focused on hereafter referred to as the focused identity. When nationality was the focused identity, those with this common identity exhibited greater social preferences than those of differing nationalities, regardless of gender. When gender was the focused identity, those with this common identity exhibited greater social preferences than those of differing gender, regardless, to some extent, of nationality. This lack of consistency shows that the perception of social distance is not a constant through both stages and yet it is still proves to be a determining factor in how players interact. The following content of this paper is arranged into four sections. Section 2 will address the relevant literature with regards to social preferences and identity, showing their relevance, interconnected nature and inherent variability, discussing the application of various theories in the context of this study. Section 3 will describe the design and implementation of the experiment used in this study with the results, analysis and comparisons to similar studies presented in Section 4. An interpretation of these results and further conclusions will be offered in Section 5. Theories of Preferences and Identity To clearly understand the argument presented, a holistic discussion of current theories must be embarked upon. The relevance of social preferences and the forms of their analysis through experimental games will be examined in this section to create the context in which this study is placed. The concepts of identity and how they shape perceptions and interactions will then be considered before discussing their relationship with social preferences. Social Preferences The assumption that man is motivated by self-interest is one that has dominated economic theory and is indeed fundamental to the very ideology of the vast majority of economists. As Adam Smith (1910:13) suggests, It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. Inherent in this analogy is the implication that self-interest is the primary motivator in our economic interactions, and it is through this impulse that equilibria are formed. In Game Theory, the Nash Equilibrium is obtained by each player assuming the other possesses purely selfish motives. This assumption, however, is not always consistent with reality. Many factors influence an individuals decisions and it is evident that the maximisation of material gain is not always a dominating motivation. Some of the factors influencing an individuals decisions can relate to social status, group membership, inequity aversion, reciprocity, s pite, envy, altruism and identity. These factors form a preference set, referred to in this study as social preferences. Although the theory of self-interest has been ingrained in traditional economics, modern economists have increasingly questioned this supposition. In fact the traditional authors of this theory were also wary of its realism. Even though Edgeworth (1881:16) writes that the first principle of Economics is that every agent is actuated only by self-interest, he concedes that Man is, in reality, for the most part an impure egoist, a mixed utilitarian, (Edgeworth 1881:104). It is evident that we are influenced by unselfish motives in our interactions with others and it follows that these interactions will in many circumstances involve material profit and loss. This is the realm of social preferences. Amartya Sen (1977:336), in his seminal paper on the irrationality of traditional preference theory states that the purely economic man is indeed close to being a social moron. He argues that theories that do not encompass the influence of sympathy and our commitment to it are incomplete. It is the result of this basic emotion that our social norms, laws and codes of conduct are formed and without which no society would be feasible (Johansen 1977). In various studies into social preferences, it is seen that they are comprised of multiple aspects. Reciprocity, inequity aversion, altruism and trust are all basic components of this preference set (Andreoni et al. 2002). When kindness or animosity is shown, the impulse exists to reciprocate in like manner. When inequity exists, the urge exists to rebel against it. Altruism is the virtue that depends on no form of expected gain or reciprocity, the purest form of good will. Trust is the confidence in the future actions of another and is arguably the most variable of the social preferences and one that will be revisited in this study. Each of these attributes are far from abstract philosophical concepts, exert great influence on our economic interactions. Agell and Lundberg (1995) discovered that as a result of workers being influenced by fairness and equity customs, wage cuts were often unprofitable, with workers objecting to an unfair action. This can have a direct impact on the extent that a company vertically integrates, with out-sourcing often being far more viable given the reciprocal attitude of workers. Bewley (1999) also noted that a firms policy can affect worker morale and as such companies must take into account the perceived fairness of their policies. The extent of tax evasion has also been correlated to how fair it is perceived, and in fact the entire structure of tax systems are thoroughly debated and altered according to the principles of equity and merit (Seidl and Traub 2002). The perception of unreciprocated generosity has been one of the causes of the general reduction in support from the US w elfare state. People are disinclined to support welfare structures that give the impression that they are helping a poor segment of society that refuse to help themselves, content to live off the goodwill of others (Bowles and Gintis 2000). Fukuyama (1995) also correlates economic prosperity with higher levels of trust, suggesting that social preferences are a very powerful force even in the current global economic system. Sequential games Although the examples given are wide-ranging in scope, involving relatively large economic issues, social preferences have also been proven to have a significant effect on individual interactions. Previously experimental games have been used to prove the dominating forces of self-interest, the equilibria of these experiments being calculated by assuming that all agents were exclusively self-interested (Fehr and Schmict, 2001). Recently, economists have carried out several experiments involving non-cooperative games that contradict this presumption. Guth, Schmittberger and Schwarze (1982) were among the first to create a game that did just this. It is called the Ultimatum Game. There are two players in the game, one a Proposer and one a Responder. The Proposer must divide an amount of money X between the two players, offering the Responder any amount Y = X. If Responder accepts, the Proposer receives the remaining money X – Y, if they reject, both receive nothing. Under self-interested preferences, the efficient equilibrium is the one in which the Proposer gives the least amount possible to the Responder, who will accept any amount. In reality however, offers of less than a fifth of X are rejected about half time and Proposers anticipating this generally offer around 30 to 50 percent of X (Hoffman et al. 1996). This result clearly shows that factors other than self-interest are at play. It would be reasonable to assume that altruism and reciprocity both play a part in the decision-making process of both players. The Proposer may be influenced by a code of morals and a concept of fairness to offer more than the standard equilibrium distribution. The P roposer must also take into account the Responders sense of reciprocity and animosity towards a seemingly unfair distribution. Although the Responder is under no monetary incentive to reject a low offer, yet his social preferences mean that he is able to achieve some utility by spiting the Proposer, thereby valuing a certain amount of reciprocity over monetary value. Given the fact that the Proposers actions may be driven only by the fear of reciprocity and no sense of altruism, it is worthwhile to look into the Dictators Game first introduced by Kahneman et al. (1986) and refined by Forsythe et al. (1994). In this game, the Responder, now called the Recipient, is not given the option to accept or refuse the amount given by the Proposer. If the Proposer is motivated by self-interested alone, they will offer nothing to the Recipient but as many experiments have shown, this is not always the case. Henrich et al. (2001) find that in most dictator game experiments there is a primary mode offer of zero percent of the Proposers total wealth and a secondary mode offer of 50 percent. Some groups show a primary mode offer of 20 percent and a secondary mode of 50 percent providing strong evidence of inequity aversion. In addition to supporting the notion that man is not exclusively self-interested, studies also confirm that fear of reciprocity is present i n the Ultimatum Game and that Proposers apply backwards induction with average offers being lower in the Dictator Game (Roth et al. 1991). The Trust Game, developed by Berg et al. (1995) is a game that can be used to test the presence of altruism, inequity aversion, reciprocity and its namesake, trust. The game is played with an Investor and a Trustee, with the former being given an initial endowment of X and the latter given nothing. The Investor is then able to give any amount Y between 0 and X. The amount the Trustee receives will be tripled, amounting to 3Y. The Trustee is then given the option to give any amount Z between 0 and 3Y back to the Investor thereby making the payoffs of the Investor and the Trustee X – Y + Z and 3Y – Z respectively. The Trustee is under no monetary incentive to return any amount and as such, under strictly self-interested preferences the Investor will predict this and give the Trustee nothing but, as with the Ultimatum and Dictator Games, studies show that many players of the Trust Game deviate from this equilibrium. Berg et al. (1995) find that almost all Investors give so me amount of money to the Trustee and that a substantial number of Trustees return at least the same amount and that a third even returned more than they received. The amount returned also increases with the amount given thus supporting the theory that reciprocity is an integral part of many preference sets. Investors and Trustees are able to display inequity aversion by choosing to give or return amounts that will equalise final payoffs. Trustees can also display altruism by returning anything over and above the amount needed to equalise payoffs. It is interesting to note that there is substantial variation in the amounts given, with no clear average amount entrusted. The variation is not unsurprising, however, given the inherent inconsistency in levels of trust that individuals demonstrate in their interactions with various individuals. In society, trust placed in an individual is dependent on who that individual is or, in other terms, trust placed is dependent on the perceived id entity of the individual in question. Identity Identity, at its most fundamental level, is at the base of all human interaction. For an individual to interact with another, the individual must have a clear concept of both himself and of the other. It is in the consideration of these two concepts that decisions are made. Descartes (1912:167) famously stated †¦I think, therefore I am, and in doing so sparked off the philosophical debate on what truly directs our thoughts and actions. Hume (1888) further develops this by exploring our perception of ourselves, our identity. It was his belief that we can only perceive ourselves, and build our identity, by categorisation in the light of selected characteristics and never perceive our true reality in objective terms. It is out-with the bounds of this study to discuss in depth the sociological and psychological complexities of this topic, yet it is worth-while bringing to light some key concepts to further the understanding of the interactions between this studys participants. An identity is a tool of recognition. It allows us to recognise individuals, categories, groups and types of individuals, Wiley (1994:130). More than this, it is also a tool of categorisation and emotional cues. It implies a conscious awareness by members of a group, some positive or negative emotional feelings towards the characteristics which members of a group perceive themselves as sharing and in which they perceive themselves as differing from others, Mennell (1994:177). Goffman (1968) further expounds these aspects of recognition by dividing identity into three sections: the personal identity, the ego identity and the social identity. The personal identity is the unique identification that each individual possesses to differentiate themselves technically, legally and realistically from all others. The ego identity is a purely subjective observation that is built from a multitude of social experiences and is a sense of ones own particular state and nature. The social identity pr ovides a way of categorising people and connects each person with a set of attributes and characteristics thought to be in keeping with the members of their respective categories. Individuals that possess commonalities in the form of thought, action, nature, experience or lifestyle can all be grouped into various social identities. Examples of social identities are nationality, gender, music-taste, age, profession and political views. It is important to stress that while individuals may only hold one personal and ego identity, they are able to juggle multiple social identities which have varying degrees of focus from situation to situation. Akerlof and Kranton (2000) put forward the theorem that our perception of our ego identity can have a significant influence on our decisions and actions. Their theorem sheds light on a number of seemingly irrational choices. Actions that are of apparent detriment to an individual can be viewed as a form of behaviour that it used to create a more unique self identity. Similarly, steps may be taken to symbolise the assumption of a particular identity or the membership of a certain group, be they conscious or otherwise. Men do not generally wear dresses, and as such this behavioural code is unconsciously subscribed to by the majority of men. Any behaviour to the contrary poses a challenge not merely to the social norm, but to the identity of manhood itself. Attempts to manipulate an individuals decisions can be based on the notion of identity. In order to influence people to buy their products, companies create advertisements that often show a stylised form of a particular identity that people may aspire to. Finally, as identity can play such a large role in determining our economic decisions and behaviour, and assuming that individuals can choose their own identity, Akerlof and Kranton (2000) conclude that identity choices can be a major factor in a persons overall economic well-being, a conclusion strengthened by the theory of role-identities. It is difficult to determine to what extent our identity is prescriptive or descriptive in relation to our own actions, but nevertheless the dual concepts of identity and role are deeply interconnected. Lyman and Scott (1970:136) clarify this link by stating that roles are identities mobilised in a specific situation; whereas role is always situationally specific, identities are trans-situational. By assuming an identity, we also assume a role. Despite that the fact that this role varies from situation to situation, it is at all times consistent with the assumed identity. It is from this notion that expectations and metaperspectives are formed. Laing et al. (1966) pioneered the belief that it is not I but you that is important. More specifically they claimed that we are all deeply influenced by considering our view of others view of ourselves and in such a way develop a role-performance that conforms to the expectation others have of our behaviour so as to receive positive feedback o r avoid negative feedback. In order to assess these expectations and act accordingly, we must first judge what these expectations are. With strangers, this is problematic, and as such we orient ourselves toward them in terms only of the ill-specified contours of their social roles, (McCall and Simmons, 1978:70). In this respect, we are only able to form rough estimations of a persons true identity and thereby rely on our perception of how they fit into vague boundaries of social identities. When we perceive people this way, our perception of the attributes they possess as ascribed by their social identity is often completely arbitrary when viewed in the context of an objective character analysis. The perception and reality can at times be poles apart, decreasing in accuracy with increasing social distance. Identities and Social Preferences Akerlof (1997) defined social distance as a measure of social proximity between individuals. The model he created summarises that people gain benefits from interacting to those socially closer to themselves, with these benefits decreasing with isolation. This model is supported by empirical evidence that suggests that trust and reciprocity are linked with social connection and that members of the same nationality and race exhibit greater degrees of these attributes towards one another (Glaeser et al. 1999). A common method of analysing social distance is through the construction of groups in experiments and many studies of this kind have provided quite significant results. Studying the effects of group membership on cooperation, Orbell et al. (1988) find that subjects are far more likely to cooperate with in-group members than out-group members, with 79% of participants showing cooperation with the former and only 30% showing cooperation with the latter. Through using a variation on the dictator game, Frey and Bohnet (1997) also showed how group membership affects social preferences. The experiment observed that in-group members were allocated far more of the total endowment than out-group members suggesting some correlation with membership and altruism and inequity aversion. An important finding of the literature on the topic of group membership is that subjects react to membership in a very subjective manner, disregarding objective considerations. Billing and Tajfel (1973) observe that the even most minimal connections within a group still give rise to in-group positive discrimination. Although subjects realised that the basis of group composition wa s entirely random, they still discriminated toward their fellow members in a very significant way. The fact that the weakest bonds are able to create positive in-group interaction is an important consideration when examining the relation between perceptions of social identity and expressions of social preferences. While group membership is a powerful force, transnational studies have shown that the cooperation inducing group mentality is not a universally consistent attribute. Buchan, Croson and Johnson (1999) find that subjects from the U.S. are more trusting when paired with in-group members but that this is not the case for subjects from China and Japan, who are more trusting in general, regardless of whom they were paired with. Buchan and Croson (1999) also find variations across genders observing that although participants trust men and women equally, women are seen to reciprocate more than men in Trust Games and are more generous in Dictator Games, findings that are consistent internationally. Another consistency that was found across nationalities in this study was the effect that communication between players had on trust and reciprocation levels, a conclusion also mirrored in other experiments. Roth (1995) found that even simple, seemingly irrelevant conversations significantly increa sed the levels of these social preferences. Regardless of variations across nationality, gender and communication levels, it is apparent that there is a clear connection between identity and social preferences. As we categorise individuals into social categories, we not only presume they possess certain qualities and attributes but we also predict how they react. In the same way we use metaperspectives to shape our own actions based on vague notions of the social identities of others, we also use these imperfect images to form inherently imperfect expectations of future interactions. The perception and reality can at times be irreconcilable and yet any initial interaction uses this as its basis. McCall and Simmons (1978) put forward the idea that any interaction that takes place is solely based on images that are constructed in the minds of those interacting. Taking into account the inaccuracy of these constructs when strangers interact, we can see how this translates into the laymans term of prejudice, a concept closely linke d with trust. The concept of trust, as mentioned earlier is based on confidence and at the heart of confidence is a deep reliance on predictions and expectations which are in turn based on the rough identities that we perceive others to possess. This results in great variance in trust levels which, although proven in studies referred to above, is readily seen in everyday life. Trust can be unquestioned with interactions with family members and friends but displayed with lesser and lesser extents to strangers and those who we perceive as untrustworthy. Just as signalling is used in the employment markets, so it is in our trust-dependant interactions. One may ask a well-dressed, polite and friendly stranger to watch over some personal belongings in a library but may be loath to leave anything unattended when in the presence of hooded youth. The hood can be seen as a signal that the wearer is dangerous and cannot be trusted. It is perceived as the expression of an identity, the perception of which ca n influence our attitudes and behaviour. The studies above also show that identity can greatly affect reciprocity, inequity aversion and altruism. Experiments based around group membership, however minimal, show the great influence groups have on these social preferences. One explanation of this is the concept of metaperspectives, in that individuals are more generous in experimental games because they believe that their counterpart expects them to be. Akerlofs (1997:1008) model of social distance also sheds some light on this by theorising that individuals benefit from lesser amounts of social distance between them and thus have the incentive to conform to expectations, what he labels The Conformist Model. A reduction of social distance between players can also be achieved by perceived acts of kindness and so experimental game players may be willing to sacrifice monetary gains so as to achieve social gains with another player. This incentive however, is again based on social distance and those players who feel socially far apart may feel no need to become socially closer, a feeling that is ultimately merely based on their perception of the current social distance and social identities. Two significant ways in which individuals identify themselves and others is by their nationality and gender. At the outset of mankinds evolution, gender has been a universal divider of the human race, preceding all other identities. Rooted in our biology, gender is the simplest form of classification, but its implications are far more wide-reaching than simple physiology. To the opposite sex, gender implies certain generalised roles, attitudes, commitments, experiences and lifestyles. The source of such clear social stereotypes is only in part biological and many academics are of the belief that behavioural and psychological differences are created and perpetuated by unbalanced power and privilege structures in society (Flax 1990). The amplification of social distance is caused by the notion that qualities are gender specific, with masculinity and femininity being attributes in themselves, and the fact that men and women are commonly associated with their relative positions in both f amily life and work life. Lockheed (1985) supposes that women are conceived as compliant followers and men dominant leaders only because of the common minority and majority balance that is common in social and work situations. The large disparity between the social identity and actual realities of members of the opposite sex provides a good opportunity to explore to what extent interaction is based on unqualified perceptions and to map the effect of variations in this perception. Unlike gender identities, nationalism is a relatively new force in the world (Smith 1995). It can be seen as a group identity that has transcended some cultures, as seen in the ethnically diverse nations such as India and Russia, but divided others as seen in the cases of North and South Korea and the Taiwanese and Chinese separation and is manifested in positive discrimination towards fellow nationals and negative discrimination towards foreigners (Macesich, 1985). Breton (1964:378) notes that governments utilise nationalistic instruments†¦ for the purpose of increasing the share of assets in a given assets in a given territory owned by the nationals of that territory. Breton (1964) also observes that nationalistic redistribution of investment and capital results in a lower rate of return than would be realised if resources were allocated efficiently, an observation that draws parallels with the nature of social preferences on a much larger scale. The practice of promoting thes e nationalistic policies that are not beneficial to certain population segments is centred on the formation of a nation-wide group identity that promotes solidarity in the same way that smaller scale groups do. The membership of these nation-groups is defined according to several commonalities. Members share an economy, a historic territory, myths and memories, a public culture, and a set of legal rights (Smith 1991). What is clear from this definition is the lack of consistent personal characteristics, illustrating that members of a nation-group vary considerably in their social and personal identities. The minimal nature of the nation-group is accepted by many academics, some seeing nationalism as an ironic tool that encourages members to appreciate things that are national for the mere fact that it is national (Breton 1964). Karl Deutsch (1969:3) aptly described a nation as a group of people united by a common error about their ancestry and a common dislike of their neighbours, evoking the notion that national identity is a predominately social construct inaccurately perceived to be connected to common characteristics, descent and preferences. (Smith 1996) stresses that the perception of ones own nationality and that of others is inherently only emotional, implying a subjective disregard for objective considerations that results in large social distances between foreigners and nationals, and smaller social distances between nationals. However erroneous, the very substantial influence nationality exerts can be seen through the stereotypical actions of distrusting of foreigners and supporting fellow country-men, making nationality another excellent candidate identity to examine how variations in perceived identity cause variations in the social preferences displayed. Experimental Design and Implementation It is social identity and its inherently variable quality that is at the heart of this study. It is this studys aim to discover in what way the perception of this identity can affect the extent that social preferences are displayed and whether or not a shift of focus from one form of social identity to another will cause a change in degree of social preferences manifested. Given its ability to expose these preferences, an extension of the Trust Game is used Effects of Manipulating Individual Identity Effects of Manipulating Individual Identity Abstract: This study examined how changing the perception of social distance changed the way in which subjects interacted in the Trust Game specifically looking into the social preferences they displayed. A discussion of both economic and sociological research demonstrates the inherent variability of social identity and social distance and the interconnected nature these concepts have with social preferences. A two-stage experiment involving subjects of different nationalities and genders was carried out with a different identity focus in each stage. Findings show that subjects exhibit greater social preferences when interacting with those of a similar focused identity yet the degrees of these preferences displayed vary in accordance to the identity focus. Results suggest that social distance, although easily manipulated, is a powerful force in interactions. The results are consistent with previous studies into group membership, identity, nationality, gender and social preferences. Given this studys far-reaching implications it should be viewed as the premise for future study of this topic. Introduction The concept of social distance as elucidated by Akerlof (1997) is profoundly linked with social identity and social preferences. It is the differences in individuals social identities, including for example, race, gender, class and status, that determine the benefits of interaction and to what extent of social preferences are displayed. Yet when individuals are not entirely familiar with each other, the perception of social identities is based on very few observations and is therefore not entirely accurate. The purpose of this dissertation is to examine whether or not variations in the perception of social identity, and thus social distance, will affect the extent to which social preferences are manifested. Studies on the effect of identity are in no way new. Akerlof and Kranton (2000) studied its relevance and magnitude with regards to gender discrimination in the workplace, poverty and social exclusion, and the household division of labour. Akerlof (1997) also studied the effect of social distance, asserting that the social identity of individuals can substantially affect their interactions. What has not been tested, however, is to what extent identity is merely a perception. Individuals can and do possess multiple identities varying in dominance from situation to situation. The hypothesis of this paper is that social preferences are relevant in experimental games, but these are dependent on how each player perceives the others social identity, a perception that is inherently variable. Players react with varying degrees of self-interest according to the identity they perceive, even when identical character profiles are involved. Recent economic studies fail to sufficiently incorporate current sociological thinking as to the nature of social identity and although this study will give evidence for the relevance of social distance in determining degrees of social preferences, it will attempt to shed light on individuals inconsistent perception of the distance between them. In order to add weight to this position, an experiment was organised in which participants of various profiles were invited to play the Trust Game. Each game was played face-to-face with no verbal communication. The experiment was divided into two stages, a nationality focused stage and a gender focused stage. Each participant played the game twice and never with the same opposing player. Before each game, participants were assigned to certain rooms in which video clips were played depending on the identity focused on. In the first stage, participants were split into three rooms, one for each nationality present: Scottish, English and Chinese. After one play of the Trust Game, the experiment commenced its second stage and participants were split into two rooms, one for each gender, and again asked to play the game. The results show that there is significant variation in the degrees of social preferences displayed depending on the identity being focused on hereafter referred to as the focused identity. When nationality was the focused identity, those with this common identity exhibited greater social preferences than those of differing nationalities, regardless of gender. When gender was the focused identity, those with this common identity exhibited greater social preferences than those of differing gender, regardless, to some extent, of nationality. This lack of consistency shows that the perception of social distance is not a constant through both stages and yet it is still proves to be a determining factor in how players interact. The following content of this paper is arranged into four sections. Section 2 will address the relevant literature with regards to social preferences and identity, showing their relevance, interconnected nature and inherent variability, discussing the application of various theories in the context of this study. Section 3 will describe the design and implementation of the experiment used in this study with the results, analysis and comparisons to similar studies presented in Section 4. An interpretation of these results and further conclusions will be offered in Section 5. Theories of Preferences and Identity To clearly understand the argument presented, a holistic discussion of current theories must be embarked upon. The relevance of social preferences and the forms of their analysis through experimental games will be examined in this section to create the context in which this study is placed. The concepts of identity and how they shape perceptions and interactions will then be considered before discussing their relationship with social preferences. Social Preferences The assumption that man is motivated by self-interest is one that has dominated economic theory and is indeed fundamental to the very ideology of the vast majority of economists. As Adam Smith (1910:13) suggests, It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. Inherent in this analogy is the implication that self-interest is the primary motivator in our economic interactions, and it is through this impulse that equilibria are formed. In Game Theory, the Nash Equilibrium is obtained by each player assuming the other possesses purely selfish motives. This assumption, however, is not always consistent with reality. Many factors influence an individuals decisions and it is evident that the maximisation of material gain is not always a dominating motivation. Some of the factors influencing an individuals decisions can relate to social status, group membership, inequity aversion, reciprocity, s pite, envy, altruism and identity. These factors form a preference set, referred to in this study as social preferences. Although the theory of self-interest has been ingrained in traditional economics, modern economists have increasingly questioned this supposition. In fact the traditional authors of this theory were also wary of its realism. Even though Edgeworth (1881:16) writes that the first principle of Economics is that every agent is actuated only by self-interest, he concedes that Man is, in reality, for the most part an impure egoist, a mixed utilitarian, (Edgeworth 1881:104). It is evident that we are influenced by unselfish motives in our interactions with others and it follows that these interactions will in many circumstances involve material profit and loss. This is the realm of social preferences. Amartya Sen (1977:336), in his seminal paper on the irrationality of traditional preference theory states that the purely economic man is indeed close to being a social moron. He argues that theories that do not encompass the influence of sympathy and our commitment to it are incomplete. It is the result of this basic emotion that our social norms, laws and codes of conduct are formed and without which no society would be feasible (Johansen 1977). In various studies into social preferences, it is seen that they are comprised of multiple aspects. Reciprocity, inequity aversion, altruism and trust are all basic components of this preference set (Andreoni et al. 2002). When kindness or animosity is shown, the impulse exists to reciprocate in like manner. When inequity exists, the urge exists to rebel against it. Altruism is the virtue that depends on no form of expected gain or reciprocity, the purest form of good will. Trust is the confidence in the future actions of another and is arguably the most variable of the social preferences and one that will be revisited in this study. Each of these attributes are far from abstract philosophical concepts, exert great influence on our economic interactions. Agell and Lundberg (1995) discovered that as a result of workers being influenced by fairness and equity customs, wage cuts were often unprofitable, with workers objecting to an unfair action. This can have a direct impact on the extent that a company vertically integrates, with out-sourcing often being far more viable given the reciprocal attitude of workers. Bewley (1999) also noted that a firms policy can affect worker morale and as such companies must take into account the perceived fairness of their policies. The extent of tax evasion has also been correlated to how fair it is perceived, and in fact the entire structure of tax systems are thoroughly debated and altered according to the principles of equity and merit (Seidl and Traub 2002). The perception of unreciprocated generosity has been one of the causes of the general reduction in support from the US w elfare state. People are disinclined to support welfare structures that give the impression that they are helping a poor segment of society that refuse to help themselves, content to live off the goodwill of others (Bowles and Gintis 2000). Fukuyama (1995) also correlates economic prosperity with higher levels of trust, suggesting that social preferences are a very powerful force even in the current global economic system. Sequential games Although the examples given are wide-ranging in scope, involving relatively large economic issues, social preferences have also been proven to have a significant effect on individual interactions. Previously experimental games have been used to prove the dominating forces of self-interest, the equilibria of these experiments being calculated by assuming that all agents were exclusively self-interested (Fehr and Schmict, 2001). Recently, economists have carried out several experiments involving non-cooperative games that contradict this presumption. Guth, Schmittberger and Schwarze (1982) were among the first to create a game that did just this. It is called the Ultimatum Game. There are two players in the game, one a Proposer and one a Responder. The Proposer must divide an amount of money X between the two players, offering the Responder any amount Y = X. If Responder accepts, the Proposer receives the remaining money X – Y, if they reject, both receive nothing. Under self-interested preferences, the efficient equilibrium is the one in which the Proposer gives the least amount possible to the Responder, who will accept any amount. In reality however, offers of less than a fifth of X are rejected about half time and Proposers anticipating this generally offer around 30 to 50 percent of X (Hoffman et al. 1996). This result clearly shows that factors other than self-interest are at play. It would be reasonable to assume that altruism and reciprocity both play a part in the decision-making process of both players. The Proposer may be influenced by a code of morals and a concept of fairness to offer more than the standard equilibrium distribution. The P roposer must also take into account the Responders sense of reciprocity and animosity towards a seemingly unfair distribution. Although the Responder is under no monetary incentive to reject a low offer, yet his social preferences mean that he is able to achieve some utility by spiting the Proposer, thereby valuing a certain amount of reciprocity over monetary value. Given the fact that the Proposers actions may be driven only by the fear of reciprocity and no sense of altruism, it is worthwhile to look into the Dictators Game first introduced by Kahneman et al. (1986) and refined by Forsythe et al. (1994). In this game, the Responder, now called the Recipient, is not given the option to accept or refuse the amount given by the Proposer. If the Proposer is motivated by self-interested alone, they will offer nothing to the Recipient but as many experiments have shown, this is not always the case. Henrich et al. (2001) find that in most dictator game experiments there is a primary mode offer of zero percent of the Proposers total wealth and a secondary mode offer of 50 percent. Some groups show a primary mode offer of 20 percent and a secondary mode of 50 percent providing strong evidence of inequity aversion. In addition to supporting the notion that man is not exclusively self-interested, studies also confirm that fear of reciprocity is present i n the Ultimatum Game and that Proposers apply backwards induction with average offers being lower in the Dictator Game (Roth et al. 1991). The Trust Game, developed by Berg et al. (1995) is a game that can be used to test the presence of altruism, inequity aversion, reciprocity and its namesake, trust. The game is played with an Investor and a Trustee, with the former being given an initial endowment of X and the latter given nothing. The Investor is then able to give any amount Y between 0 and X. The amount the Trustee receives will be tripled, amounting to 3Y. The Trustee is then given the option to give any amount Z between 0 and 3Y back to the Investor thereby making the payoffs of the Investor and the Trustee X – Y + Z and 3Y – Z respectively. The Trustee is under no monetary incentive to return any amount and as such, under strictly self-interested preferences the Investor will predict this and give the Trustee nothing but, as with the Ultimatum and Dictator Games, studies show that many players of the Trust Game deviate from this equilibrium. Berg et al. (1995) find that almost all Investors give so me amount of money to the Trustee and that a substantial number of Trustees return at least the same amount and that a third even returned more than they received. The amount returned also increases with the amount given thus supporting the theory that reciprocity is an integral part of many preference sets. Investors and Trustees are able to display inequity aversion by choosing to give or return amounts that will equalise final payoffs. Trustees can also display altruism by returning anything over and above the amount needed to equalise payoffs. It is interesting to note that there is substantial variation in the amounts given, with no clear average amount entrusted. The variation is not unsurprising, however, given the inherent inconsistency in levels of trust that individuals demonstrate in their interactions with various individuals. In society, trust placed in an individual is dependent on who that individual is or, in other terms, trust placed is dependent on the perceived id entity of the individual in question. Identity Identity, at its most fundamental level, is at the base of all human interaction. For an individual to interact with another, the individual must have a clear concept of both himself and of the other. It is in the consideration of these two concepts that decisions are made. Descartes (1912:167) famously stated †¦I think, therefore I am, and in doing so sparked off the philosophical debate on what truly directs our thoughts and actions. Hume (1888) further develops this by exploring our perception of ourselves, our identity. It was his belief that we can only perceive ourselves, and build our identity, by categorisation in the light of selected characteristics and never perceive our true reality in objective terms. It is out-with the bounds of this study to discuss in depth the sociological and psychological complexities of this topic, yet it is worth-while bringing to light some key concepts to further the understanding of the interactions between this studys participants. An identity is a tool of recognition. It allows us to recognise individuals, categories, groups and types of individuals, Wiley (1994:130). More than this, it is also a tool of categorisation and emotional cues. It implies a conscious awareness by members of a group, some positive or negative emotional feelings towards the characteristics which members of a group perceive themselves as sharing and in which they perceive themselves as differing from others, Mennell (1994:177). Goffman (1968) further expounds these aspects of recognition by dividing identity into three sections: the personal identity, the ego identity and the social identity. The personal identity is the unique identification that each individual possesses to differentiate themselves technically, legally and realistically from all others. The ego identity is a purely subjective observation that is built from a multitude of social experiences and is a sense of ones own particular state and nature. The social identity pr ovides a way of categorising people and connects each person with a set of attributes and characteristics thought to be in keeping with the members of their respective categories. Individuals that possess commonalities in the form of thought, action, nature, experience or lifestyle can all be grouped into various social identities. Examples of social identities are nationality, gender, music-taste, age, profession and political views. It is important to stress that while individuals may only hold one personal and ego identity, they are able to juggle multiple social identities which have varying degrees of focus from situation to situation. Akerlof and Kranton (2000) put forward the theorem that our perception of our ego identity can have a significant influence on our decisions and actions. Their theorem sheds light on a number of seemingly irrational choices. Actions that are of apparent detriment to an individual can be viewed as a form of behaviour that it used to create a more unique self identity. Similarly, steps may be taken to symbolise the assumption of a particular identity or the membership of a certain group, be they conscious or otherwise. Men do not generally wear dresses, and as such this behavioural code is unconsciously subscribed to by the majority of men. Any behaviour to the contrary poses a challenge not merely to the social norm, but to the identity of manhood itself. Attempts to manipulate an individuals decisions can be based on the notion of identity. In order to influence people to buy their products, companies create advertisements that often show a stylised form of a particular identity that people may aspire to. Finally, as identity can play such a large role in determining our economic decisions and behaviour, and assuming that individuals can choose their own identity, Akerlof and Kranton (2000) conclude that identity choices can be a major factor in a persons overall economic well-being, a conclusion strengthened by the theory of role-identities. It is difficult to determine to what extent our identity is prescriptive or descriptive in relation to our own actions, but nevertheless the dual concepts of identity and role are deeply interconnected. Lyman and Scott (1970:136) clarify this link by stating that roles are identities mobilised in a specific situation; whereas role is always situationally specific, identities are trans-situational. By assuming an identity, we also assume a role. Despite that the fact that this role varies from situation to situation, it is at all times consistent with the assumed identity. It is from this notion that expectations and metaperspectives are formed. Laing et al. (1966) pioneered the belief that it is not I but you that is important. More specifically they claimed that we are all deeply influenced by considering our view of others view of ourselves and in such a way develop a role-performance that conforms to the expectation others have of our behaviour so as to receive positive feedback o r avoid negative feedback. In order to assess these expectations and act accordingly, we must first judge what these expectations are. With strangers, this is problematic, and as such we orient ourselves toward them in terms only of the ill-specified contours of their social roles, (McCall and Simmons, 1978:70). In this respect, we are only able to form rough estimations of a persons true identity and thereby rely on our perception of how they fit into vague boundaries of social identities. When we perceive people this way, our perception of the attributes they possess as ascribed by their social identity is often completely arbitrary when viewed in the context of an objective character analysis. The perception and reality can at times be poles apart, decreasing in accuracy with increasing social distance. Identities and Social Preferences Akerlof (1997) defined social distance as a measure of social proximity between individuals. The model he created summarises that people gain benefits from interacting to those socially closer to themselves, with these benefits decreasing with isolation. This model is supported by empirical evidence that suggests that trust and reciprocity are linked with social connection and that members of the same nationality and race exhibit greater degrees of these attributes towards one another (Glaeser et al. 1999). A common method of analysing social distance is through the construction of groups in experiments and many studies of this kind have provided quite significant results. Studying the effects of group membership on cooperation, Orbell et al. (1988) find that subjects are far more likely to cooperate with in-group members than out-group members, with 79% of participants showing cooperation with the former and only 30% showing cooperation with the latter. Through using a variation on the dictator game, Frey and Bohnet (1997) also showed how group membership affects social preferences. The experiment observed that in-group members were allocated far more of the total endowment than out-group members suggesting some correlation with membership and altruism and inequity aversion. An important finding of the literature on the topic of group membership is that subjects react to membership in a very subjective manner, disregarding objective considerations. Billing and Tajfel (1973) observe that the even most minimal connections within a group still give rise to in-group positive discrimination. Although subjects realised that the basis of group composition wa s entirely random, they still discriminated toward their fellow members in a very significant way. The fact that the weakest bonds are able to create positive in-group interaction is an important consideration when examining the relation between perceptions of social identity and expressions of social preferences. While group membership is a powerful force, transnational studies have shown that the cooperation inducing group mentality is not a universally consistent attribute. Buchan, Croson and Johnson (1999) find that subjects from the U.S. are more trusting when paired with in-group members but that this is not the case for subjects from China and Japan, who are more trusting in general, regardless of whom they were paired with. Buchan and Croson (1999) also find variations across genders observing that although participants trust men and women equally, women are seen to reciprocate more than men in Trust Games and are more generous in Dictator Games, findings that are consistent internationally. Another consistency that was found across nationalities in this study was the effect that communication between players had on trust and reciprocation levels, a conclusion also mirrored in other experiments. Roth (1995) found that even simple, seemingly irrelevant conversations significantly increa sed the levels of these social preferences. Regardless of variations across nationality, gender and communication levels, it is apparent that there is a clear connection between identity and social preferences. As we categorise individuals into social categories, we not only presume they possess certain qualities and attributes but we also predict how they react. In the same way we use metaperspectives to shape our own actions based on vague notions of the social identities of others, we also use these imperfect images to form inherently imperfect expectations of future interactions. The perception and reality can at times be irreconcilable and yet any initial interaction uses this as its basis. McCall and Simmons (1978) put forward the idea that any interaction that takes place is solely based on images that are constructed in the minds of those interacting. Taking into account the inaccuracy of these constructs when strangers interact, we can see how this translates into the laymans term of prejudice, a concept closely linke d with trust. The concept of trust, as mentioned earlier is based on confidence and at the heart of confidence is a deep reliance on predictions and expectations which are in turn based on the rough identities that we perceive others to possess. This results in great variance in trust levels which, although proven in studies referred to above, is readily seen in everyday life. Trust can be unquestioned with interactions with family members and friends but displayed with lesser and lesser extents to strangers and those who we perceive as untrustworthy. Just as signalling is used in the employment markets, so it is in our trust-dependant interactions. One may ask a well-dressed, polite and friendly stranger to watch over some personal belongings in a library but may be loath to leave anything unattended when in the presence of hooded youth. The hood can be seen as a signal that the wearer is dangerous and cannot be trusted. It is perceived as the expression of an identity, the perception of which ca n influence our attitudes and behaviour. The studies above also show that identity can greatly affect reciprocity, inequity aversion and altruism. Experiments based around group membership, however minimal, show the great influence groups have on these social preferences. One explanation of this is the concept of metaperspectives, in that individuals are more generous in experimental games because they believe that their counterpart expects them to be. Akerlofs (1997:1008) model of social distance also sheds some light on this by theorising that individuals benefit from lesser amounts of social distance between them and thus have the incentive to conform to expectations, what he labels The Conformist Model. A reduction of social distance between players can also be achieved by perceived acts of kindness and so experimental game players may be willing to sacrifice monetary gains so as to achieve social gains with another player. This incentive however, is again based on social distance and those players who feel socially far apart may feel no need to become socially closer, a feeling that is ultimately merely based on their perception of the current social distance and social identities. Two significant ways in which individuals identify themselves and others is by their nationality and gender. At the outset of mankinds evolution, gender has been a universal divider of the human race, preceding all other identities. Rooted in our biology, gender is the simplest form of classification, but its implications are far more wide-reaching than simple physiology. To the opposite sex, gender implies certain generalised roles, attitudes, commitments, experiences and lifestyles. The source of such clear social stereotypes is only in part biological and many academics are of the belief that behavioural and psychological differences are created and perpetuated by unbalanced power and privilege structures in society (Flax 1990). The amplification of social distance is caused by the notion that qualities are gender specific, with masculinity and femininity being attributes in themselves, and the fact that men and women are commonly associated with their relative positions in both f amily life and work life. Lockheed (1985) supposes that women are conceived as compliant followers and men dominant leaders only because of the common minority and majority balance that is common in social and work situations. The large disparity between the social identity and actual realities of members of the opposite sex provides a good opportunity to explore to what extent interaction is based on unqualified perceptions and to map the effect of variations in this perception. Unlike gender identities, nationalism is a relatively new force in the world (Smith 1995). It can be seen as a group identity that has transcended some cultures, as seen in the ethnically diverse nations such as India and Russia, but divided others as seen in the cases of North and South Korea and the Taiwanese and Chinese separation and is manifested in positive discrimination towards fellow nationals and negative discrimination towards foreigners (Macesich, 1985). Breton (1964:378) notes that governments utilise nationalistic instruments†¦ for the purpose of increasing the share of assets in a given assets in a given territory owned by the nationals of that territory. Breton (1964) also observes that nationalistic redistribution of investment and capital results in a lower rate of return than would be realised if resources were allocated efficiently, an observation that draws parallels with the nature of social preferences on a much larger scale. The practice of promoting thes e nationalistic policies that are not beneficial to certain population segments is centred on the formation of a nation-wide group identity that promotes solidarity in the same way that smaller scale groups do. The membership of these nation-groups is defined according to several commonalities. Members share an economy, a historic territory, myths and memories, a public culture, and a set of legal rights (Smith 1991). What is clear from this definition is the lack of consistent personal characteristics, illustrating that members of a nation-group vary considerably in their social and personal identities. The minimal nature of the nation-group is accepted by many academics, some seeing nationalism as an ironic tool that encourages members to appreciate things that are national for the mere fact that it is national (Breton 1964). Karl Deutsch (1969:3) aptly described a nation as a group of people united by a common error about their ancestry and a common dislike of their neighbours, evoking the notion that national identity is a predominately social construct inaccurately perceived to be connected to common characteristics, descent and preferences. (Smith 1996) stresses that the perception of ones own nationality and that of others is inherently only emotional, implying a subjective disregard for objective considerations that results in large social distances between foreigners and nationals, and smaller social distances between nationals. However erroneous, the very substantial influence nationality exerts can be seen through the stereotypical actions of distrusting of foreigners and supporting fellow country-men, making nationality another excellent candidate identity to examine how variations in perceived identity cause variations in the social preferences displayed. Experimental Design and Implementation It is social identity and its inherently variable quality that is at the heart of this study. It is this studys aim to discover in what way the perception of this identity can affect the extent that social preferences are displayed and whether or not a shift of focus from one form of social identity to another will cause a change in degree of social preferences manifested. Given its ability to expose these preferences, an extension of the Trust Game is used